A good article on Rafale. It's a long one.
The Rafale is poised to become Europe's premier fighter-bomber
by Michal Fiszer
Jun. 6, 2005
France's Rafale is the most capable aircraft of the three new-generation fighters developed in Europe over the last two decades. Although the Dassault Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon, and Saab Gripen are all currently being developed as multirole aircraft, only in the case of the first were strike capabilities made a priority from the very beginning of the program. The remaining two were initially optimized for air-to-air missions, with attack capabilities added later. When current conflicts demand mainly air-to-ground capabilities, the Rafale (the name means "squall") better fits those requirements, being a true strike fighter by its very nature, and it is not any worse in air combat than its two European competitors. Various circumstances dictated that that Rafale would be fully multirole, while the Gripen and Typhoon are fighters with strike capabilities. Dassault goes even farther and calls its aircraft "omni-role," which means that Rafale can perform ground-attack and air-combat tasks in one sortie
The requirement for stealth led to redesigning the fuselage, which produced Rafale's characteristic shape. The radar-absorbent materials initially used caused the dark color of the Rafale C prototype (shown here), but later special electromagnetic-transparent paints were developed so the aircraft could receive any color scheme.
This is not to say that the Rafale's superiority as a European air-combat platform is absolute. There are many factors that weigh against the aircraft, chiefly complexity and cost. Moreover, not every nation has the same requirements for its air arm, and there are many qualities to recommend the Typhoon and Gripen, not to mention comparable candidates from Russia and the US. To date, no foreign customer for the Rafale has been found, while Saab already has three export customers for Gripen – the Czech Republic, Hungary, and South Africa – and even Eurofighter has found an export sale outside of its consortium membership – as of now, though, only to Austria. One could ask why such a capable and technically successful aircraft as the Rafale has had such a difficult road. Perhaps the Rafale is "over qualified," and potential customers, including France, do not wish to pay for capabilities that they do not need.
Nevertheless, as we shall see, a combination of good planning and good fortune has conspired to place the Rafale at the forefront of European tactical aircraft.
Early Development
Initial studies for an Avion de Combat Tactique (ACT; Tactical Combat Aircraft) started at the French Ministry of Aviation as early as in 1975. At this early stage, the aircraft was to be a prospective supplement to the Mirage 2000, which first flew in 1978. The Mirage 2000 was to be a light fighter in the F-16 class, optimized for air defense and related tasks, while the ACT was to be a heavier and more capable aircraft, optimized for ground attack, reconnaissance, and air superiority. Among the authors of these early requirements, called ACT 92 (1992 was the year of expected service entry), was LtCol Vincent Lanata, later Chief of Staff of the French Air Force.
Initial studies for an Avion de Combat Tactique (ACT; Tactical Combat Aircraft) started at the French Ministry of Aviation as early as 1975. Early efforts to cooperate with the Anglo-German effort that would lead to Eurofighter did not pan out, and the French pursued the ACT on their own. The French had a requirement for a multirole aircraft, and the Rafale's unique "omni-role" nature is a function of this. Pictured here is the Rafale B.
The UK and Germany initiated an international consortium to develop a future multirole aircraft in 1977. It was even agreed that the aircraft would be a two-engine, single-seat multirole fighter with a delta wing and front horizontal control surfaces (canards). The aerodynamic layout was actually proposed by France, which joined the consortium. However, due to conflicting requirements, cooperation ended in the spring of 1981. Germany wanted to build an air-defense and air-superiority fighter; the UK wanted to build a heavy multirole aircraft with an emphasis on air-to-air missions; while France wanted a lighter multirole fighter with the emphasis on air-to-ground missions. Finally, the common development effort split into the French ACT 92 and the German-British European Combat Fighter (ECF), resulting from the British Air Staff Target (AST) 403 and German Taktisches Kampfflugzeug (TKF) 90 requirements. The ECF finally evolved into the four-nation (with Italy and Spain) Eurofighter Typhoon, and France decided to proceed with ACT 92 on its own.
On Oct. 30, 1978, Avions Marcel Dassault-Breguet (presently Dassault Aviation, Paris, France) received an initial contract for the development of the ACT 92 project, supplemented on December 20 by a contract for its naval version. In 1979, more serious studies about possible configurations of the new aircraft were undertaken by the Office National d'Études de Recherches Aéronautiques (ONERA; the National Office for Aviation Studies and Research). The project was conducted under the codename Rapace – bird of prey. In March 1980, Dassault-Breguet started studying four aerodynamic configurations, all with canards and delta wings. Two had a single vertical tail fin, while the others had double vertical fins.
Ten of the first production batch of F1-standard aircraft built were Rafale M naval single-seat fighters, eight of which equip the 12F Squadron (shown here), replacing obsolete Vought F-8E(FN) Crusader fighters. Total requirements of the French Navy call for 60 aircraft (all single-seat Rafale Ms), and the French Air Force ultimately is to procure 95 Rafale C single-seat and 140 Rafale B two-seat fighters.
In October 1982, Charles Hernu, the French minister of defense, announced that Dassault-Breguet would build a technology demonstrator called the Avion de Combat Epérimental (ACX; Experimental Combat Aircraft), based on the ACT 92 study. On April 13, 1983, it was decided that the ACX would be built according to the project prepared at Dassault Technical Department and headed by Bruno Revellin-Falcoz. The design team was led by Jean-Jacques Samin and Claude Hironde. The Dassault-Breguet proposal was prepared in close cooperation with ONERA, the Ministry of the Air Force, and the Délégation Générale pour l'Armement (DGA; France's top military-procurement authority). In September 1984, the French government, acknowledging that other countries' requirements were too far apart from French operational needs, decided to build a combat version of the ACX with the newly designed Snecma M88 engines. The proposal totally eliminated any hope that France cold be lured back into the ECF program, since those specifications were not acceptable to Germany and the UK.
The new aircraft was named the Rafale by Dassault, and the ACX technology demonstrator became Rafale A. Among the requirements for the new aircraft, three elements were especially interesting: the decision to design the aircraft with the use of available stealth technologies, while keeping the accepted aerodynamic lay-out, including radar-absorbing materials (RAMs), shaping of some features (such as the fuselage, inlets, etc.), and extensive use of composite materials; the decision to equip the aircraft with a glass cockpit and employ a hands-on throttle and stick (HOTAS) and fly-by-wire controls; and the decision to integrate all of the avionics, navigation, fire-control, and self-protection equipment into a single system controlled by a central mission computer.
The requirement for stealth led to redesigning the fuselage, which produced the Rafale's present characteristic shape. A single air intake was split into two side-mounted intakes that were carefully shaped to prevent an enemy's radar from observing Rafale from the front hemisphere by getting returns off the moving parts of compressors. The vertical fin was made of electromagnetic (EM)- transparent composites. The RAMs initially used caused the black color of the Rafale C prototype, but special EM-transparent paints were later developed so the aircraft could receive any color scheme. All of those undertakings dramatically reduced the radar cross-section (RCS) of the Rafale, especially from the front. It is very difficult to assess the Rafale's RCS due to the high level of classification, but sources have unofficially said that Rafale has a much lower RCS than the Typhoon, a fighter of roughly the same size.
Initially, a more stealthy version of Rafale was to be developed. It was named Rafale D (D for "discret," or stealth) and was to be built in land-based and naval versions. But it was later decided that the serial Rafale would be of reduced overall size and that, with the end of the Cold War, such high levels of stealthiness would not be required.
In the spring of 2002, 12F Squadron became operational, and with seven Rafales, it deployed aboard the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle (shown here), which went to the Indian Ocean in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. While the Rafales were not combat ready, they did engage in mock air combat with US Navy F-14 and F/A-18 fighters. By all accounts, the Rafales put in an impressive performance. In March 2004, Charles de Gaulle again set off to the Indian Ocean, where her embarked Rafale squadron took part in the Northwind 2004 joint exercises with Mirage 2000-9s of the UAE. Later, the aircraft took part in the Varuna exercise conducted with the Indian Navy, and Rafales were matched against Indian Sea Harrier FRS.51s. Another exercise, Red Shark, conducted with Saudi Arabia, enabled Rafales to conduct practice engagements against Saudi Tornado F3s.
Building of the Rafale A technology demonstrator started at Dassault's Saint-Cloud factory in March 1984, before a contract with the DGA was signed. It was temporarily powered by General Electric F404-GE-400 engines (68.8 kN of reheated thrust each). The first flight took place at Istres on July 4, 1986. Four years later, the aircraft was re-engined with Snecma M88-2 engines with 72.9 kN of thrust each. The Rafale A was used for tests until 1994.
Progress in electronics enabled a reduction in the size of the Rafale's airframe. This resulted in an even lower RCS. It is also worth emphasizing that the smaller and lighter airframe used in production Rafales enables them to fly in "supercruise" mode – supersonic flight without the use of afterburners. Supercruise enables the aircraft to execute a part of the ingress and/or egress route at supersonic speed without serious penalty to its tactical radius.
Rafales of the F2 standard can carry an assortment of precision-guided weapons, including laser-guided bombs (shown here, on a Rafale B), Apache stand-off missiles, and SCALP cruise missiles. Future enhancements will enable Rafale to carry anti-ship missiles and other strike weapons, including the nuclear-armed ASMP-A missile.
Four such redesigned pre-production aircraft were built: a Rafale C single-seater for Air Force, a Rafale M single seater for the Navy, a Rafale B two-seater for the Air Force, and a Rafale M two-seater for Navy. They were first flown on May 19, 1991; Dec. 12, 1991; April 30, 1993; and Nov. 8, 1993, respectively. The Rafale B was the first aircraft to receive the newly developed Thomson-CSF and Dassault Electronique (now merged into Thales) Radar à Bayalage Electronoique Deux Plans (RBE2; Radar With Two-Axis Electronic Scan), the Spectra self-protection system, and the final version of the F1 standard avionics and navigation system. The use of the two-seater made tests of the aircraft's electronics systems easier. (Note that the designation Rafale M for the pre-production two-seater is confusing, because the designation Rafale N had been reserved for such aircraft.)
All Rafale production versions are incrementally divided into four standards, called F1, F2, F3, and F4 in France, and also referred as Block 01, Block 5, Block 10, and Block 15 for export purposes. All of the land-based Rafales have 14 hardpoints for external weapons. The naval Rafale M has thirteen hardpoints due to the reinforcement of the fuselage structure for carrier operations, so it has one central fuselage station instead of two in tandem. The F1 can carry up to 10 MICA EM and Magic-2 air-to-air missiles (6+4, or 5+4 in the naval version). Interestingly, F1 aircraft do no carry MICA IR missiles. The central fuselage stations are intended for MICA missiles, while the rear station can accept a drop tank. Four additional stations are mounted on the fuselage sides – the rear pair for MICA missiles and the left front for the Damocles targeting pod (used in F2 and above aircraft). Six additional stations under the wings can be used for two drop tanks and four MICA missiles. The outer stations and wingtip stations can be used only for Magic-2 infrared-guided short-range missiles.
The Rafale is equipped with a single 30mm GIAT 791B cannon mounted on the right engine duct. The gun has a rate of fire of 2,500 rounds per minute, and the fighter carries 125 rounds of ammunition.
Sensors and Electronics
The RBE2 radar had been in development since 1989. It was decided that the radar would receive a new phased-array antenna with full electronic scan, instead of the electro-mechanical scan employed by the Eurofighter Typhoon's Captor radar. Initially, the radar received a passive phased-array antenna, but ultimately an active electronically scanned array (AESA) will be fitted. According to French Ministry of Defense (MoD) sources, the RBE2 radar has a modest range about 100 km against fighter aircraft, but it operates in a low-probability-of-intercept (LPI) mode and is resistant to deception jamming. The Typhoon's Captor has a range of 160 km against fighters but is considered more prone to jamming and can track fewer targets. The French Air Force accepted the penalty in range reduction for the benefits of LPI and other characteristics. Moreover, in network-centric operations, a common air picture will be transmitted via the Multifunctional Information Distribution System (MIDS) to the Rafale, enabling the aircraft to make use of off-board sensors.
According to Thales, the radar operates in the X band and can use low, medium, and high pulse-repetition frequencies. It can track up to 40 air targets in track-while-scan mode and, according to an unofficial source, can engage up to eight of them with missiles launched in short intervals. Normally up to six (five on the naval Rafale M) MBDA (Paris, France) MICA EM missiles can be carried. An unusual feature of the infrared-seeking MICA IR version is that the missile can receive mid-course update commands from the radar to compare the target location with the location of its seeker's track or for lock-after-launch engagements. The effective range of both the infrared- and radar-homing missile versions, therefore, reaches 70 km. Electronic beam steering enables the RBE2 radar to search the airspace in various patterns, probably up to 60 degrees in any direction from the fixed antenna axis. The radar enables not only track while scan but also so-called "track here while scan there." For example, the RBE2 can readily track airborne targets while searching for another airborne target in another sector. The radar performs automatic prioritization of threat targets and has the ability to discriminate a single aircraft in a group in raid-assessment mode. The F1 standard radar has no air-to-ground functions.
The Rafale's RBE2 radar has a modest range of about 100 km against fighter aircraft, but it operates in a low-probability-of-intercept (LPI) mode and is resistant to deception jamming. The French Air Force accepted the penalty in range reduction for the benefits of LPI and other characteristics. Moreover, in network-centric operations, a common air picture will be transmitted via the Multifunctional Information Distribution System (MIDS) to the Rafale, enabling the aircraft to make use of off-board sensors. This Rafale B carries an assortment of MICA EM (inboard) and Magic-2 (outboard) air-to-air missiles.
The AESA radar is not being incorporated into the F3 standard. The development of the AESA version of the RBE2 radar started officially in April 2002, when the DGA awarded Thales a contract for development of an active-array radar demonstrator optimized for the Rafale. Called the Démonstrateur Radar à Antenne Active (DRAA; Active Array Radar Demonstrator), the program culminated in a series of demanding flight tests to validate the system's detection performance. In December 2002, the first flight of the AESA system was carried out in a Mystere XX flying testbed belonging to the French MoD and located at the Flight Test Center at Cazaux. Subsequently, the DRAA was fitted to the two-seat production Rafale B301, which flew with it for the first time in May 2003. The next step is now the Démonstrateur Radar à Antenne Active Modes Avancés (DRAAMA; Advanced Modes Active Array Radar Demonstrator) program, which was officially launched by the DGA in July 2004. The DRAAMA will be entirely new and will benefit from the latest developments in radar and solid-state technology. It is possible that the AESA radar will be introduced with the F4 standard and/or will form an upgrade package for earlier aircraft.
The Spectra [Système de Protection et d'Evitement des Conduites de Tir du Rafale] self-protection suite has been integrated by Thales, but it consists of elements built by various companies. The Spectra consists of a radar-warning receiver (RWR), missile-launch-warning system (MLWS), laser-warning receivers (LWS), a management computer, four chaff/flare dispensers, and a built-in jammer, all integrated into a single automatic system. The RWR and active jamming system were developed by Dassault Electronique (presently Thales) and are integrated as the Détection et Brouillage Electromagnétique (DBEM) system. According to an unofficial source, in the F1 standard, the DBEM can detect transmitters over the frequency range of 2-18 GHz, but this was increased to 2-40 GHz on the F2 standard. The system has a very high accuracy of up to one degree in azimuth. The DBEM automatically detects, classifies, and identifies emitters and inputs information about them into the computer. The Spectra's active jamming subsystem uses phased-array antennas located at the roots of the canards. Reportedly, the antennas can produce a pencil beam compatible with the accuracy of the receiver system, concentrating power on the threat while minimizing the chances of detection. It also uses other low-probability-of-detection techniques, so the Rafale's electronic-countermeasures (ECM) capability is also compatible with its stealth requirements. The MLWS was developed by Matra (presently MBDA) and is called the Détecteur infrarouge de Départ de Missiles (DDM; missile-launch-detection system). It works in two infrared (IR) bands to increase detection reliability. Its primary detector is mounted on top of the Rafale's tail. The LWS was developed by Thales and is called the Détection et Alerte Laser (DAL). The whole Spectra suite is integrated with three dedicated computers, developed by Thales and MBDA and called the Gestion de l'Interface et Compatibilité (GIC).
Rafale-M Glass Cockpit
The Rafale received a glass cockpit from the very beginning. Four color monitors were mounted in the cockpit, one head-level 254x254-mm (10x10-in.) display, one weapon- and system-status monitor below it, and two smaller 127x127-mm (5x5-in.) displays on each side of the main tactical display. All displays were developed by Sextant Avionique (presently Thales) with the use of active-matrix and liquid-crystal display (LCD) technologies. The two small displays are controlled by touch. Thales also delivered the CTH3022 wide-angle (32x20º) holographic head-up display (HUD).
Rafales are powered by two Snecma M88-2 engines with 72.9 kN of thrust each. Rafales are able to fly in "supercruise" mode – supersonic flight without the use of afterburners. Supercruise enables the aircraft to execute a part of the ingress and/or egress route at supersonic speed without serious penalty to its tactical radius.
All of the Rafale's avionics and electronics were integrated through four Mil Std 1553B data buses and two Mil Std 1760 data buses. The latter operate in the ADA language and enable use of most modern types of weapons. Integration was achieved through two Dassault Electronique (presently Thales) mission computers, replaced by a single, more capable computer on the F2 standard and above. The heart of the navigation system is formed by two Sagem (Paris, France) Sigma 95N (RL90) laser-gyroinertial-navigation systems (INSs) with embedded GPS receivers from Thales. Thales also delivered the NC 12E TACAN, the TLS-2020 multi-mode receiver (MMR), and the AHV-17 radar altimeter, the latter of which was later replaced by the AHV2930. The TLS2020 MMR performs various functions: instrumental-landing-system (ILS) and microwave-landing-system (MLS) functions for approach and landing operations and VHF-omnidirectional-range (VOR) functions for en-route navigation. The AHV2930 digital radio-altimeter has an extended range of 0 to 10,500 feet in altitude with optimized performance for very low-level flight, as well as a low probability of detection.
The Rafale's communications suite provides secure and interoperable voice and tactical datalink communications using NATO standards: SATURN (Second-generation Anti-jamming Tactical UHF for NATO) and MIDS. The Rafale is equipped with two Thales radio sets: the TRA2020 for basic V/UHF voice communications and the TRA6031 V/UHF radio set, which provides fast-frequency-hopping SATURN capabilities while being compatible with radios presently in use.
The identification-friend-or-foe (IFF) function is performed by the SB25A Combined Interrogator-Transponder, also developed by Thales. This new IFF MKXII equipment is the first of its kind using electronic-scanning technology. It includes Mode S capability is prepared to accept the future Mode 5 IFF waveform
Four Production Standards
The F1 was an interim standard, actually optimized for air-combat missions, since developing the air-to-air fire-control system was a much easier task than the air-to-ground system. Only 13 production aircraft were built to the F1 standard. The service interested in the F1 was the French Navy, since it urgently needed a replacement for its aging Vought F-8E(FN) Crusader fighters. Ten of the F1s built were Rafale M naval single-seat fighters, eight of which equip the 12F Squadron. The three remaining were two Rafale B two-seat fighters and a single seat Rafale C for the French Air Force. First flight of the Rafale B took place on Nov. 24, 1998. The Rafale M was flown for the first time on July 7, 1999, and the Rafale C first flew on April 16, 2003 (and was the last Batch 1 aircraft to leave the factory).
While the F2 standard is not yet the ultimate version of Rafale, it can be treated as fully combat capable. The F2 is actually the first version that will enter regular service in both the French Air Force and French Navy. The whole order for the F2 standard, placed in 1999, covers 48 fighters: seven Rafale Cs and 25 Rafale Bs for the Air Force, and 16 single-seat Rafale Ms for the Navy. Currently, three production F2s have been built, all two-seat Rafale Bs for the Air Force. The latest of these was handed over to CEAM (the French Air Force Test Center) in Mont-de-Marsan in April 2005.
The aircraft's avionics system received a new-generation mission computer, more capable than the previous two combined. It is the Thales Modular Data Processing Unit (MDPU). The core software system of the MDPU includes mission, displays, cartographic, network, flight-management, and other critical flight software. The MDPU is connected to 1553 and 3910 data buses. All major systems onboard the Rafale are connected to the MDPU via interface units. These data buses are completed by point-to-point video networking, linking aircraft systems with the displays and recording systems.
Developments in the RBE2 radar enabled a ground -mapping mode and Doppler beam-sharpening mode, boosting the aircraft's ground-attack capabilities, since F2 the system can perform terrain-following and ground-proximity-warning modes. The new radar capabilities also enabled the integration of more types of air-to-ground weapons on the aircraft.
Rafales of the F2 standard can carry up to two MBDA Apache stand-off missiles (140-km range) or two MBDA SCALP mini-cruise missiles. The SCALP [Systéme de Crosiére conventional Autonome à Longue Porté] weighs 1,500 kg and has a range of 400+ km. Laser-guided weapons are also new with the F2. Up to five GBU-12 or three GBU-10 Paveway IIs can be carried, as well as the French BGL1000. In the future, Paveway III bombs will also be carried. In the anti-ship role, the Rafale F2 is to carry two AM39 Exocet Block 2 missiles, although full anti-ship capabilities will await the F3 standard. The conventional-weapon load includes up to 22 bombs weighing 250 kg (French) or 500 lb. (NATO), up to 10 bombs of 400 kg (French) or 1,000 lb. (NATO), or up to three of 1,000 kg (French) or 2,000 lb. (NATO). Among the new air-to-air load are the MICA IR infrared-guided medium-range missiles.
In further development, the Rafale F2 is to be able carry some more air-to-ground guided weapons. The most interesting of them is the Sagem AASMINS/GPS-guided bomb, something of a "European JDAM" (see below). Other unspecified weapons are likely to be integrated in the future, possibly including the Alenia/MBDA PGM-500 and PGM-2000 HAKIM family of laser-guided bombs and the Elbit (Haifa, Israel) Whizzard guided-bomb family, consisting of Lizard laser-guided and OPHER imaging-infrared-guided bombs.
Under the F2 standard, the Rafale's avionics were integrated with the MIDS tactical information-distribution system, working in the Link 16 format. Aircraft are fitted with the MIDS Low Volume Terminal (MIDS-LVT), developed by the EuroMIDS consortium, which consists of Thales (Colombes, France), Marconi Selenia Communications (Rome, Italy), Indra Sistemas (Madrid, Spain), and EADS Deutschland GmbH Defense and Security Systems Division (Unterschleissheim, Germany). The MIDS-LVT provides Link 16 for real-time tri-service tactical information exchanges with command centers, airborne early-warning aircraft, warships, and other fighters. The MIDS-LVT also provides two additional secure voice channels. The system enables the creation of a common recognized tactical picture. Now the picture obtained from Air Force E-3F AWACS and Navy E-2C Hawkeye aircraft can be distributed in real time among the Rafale fleet. Also, the aircraft can exchange pictures seen by onboard radars, as well as imagery from the Damocles pod (see below). One of the most interesting features of the MIDS is the ability to share data from the Spectra electronic-warfare (EW) system in real time, fusing it into a common recognized EW-situation picture.
And finally, the ultimate F2 aircraft will receive the Optronique Secteur Frontal (OSF) system (see below), developed by Thales Optronique in cooperation with Sagem.
After the 1999 order, development of the Rafale was slowed down by French authorities. This was largely due to the developing concepts of network-centric warfare (NCW), under which information technologies produced many changes in the fields of tactics and weapons. It was decided that prolonging the Rafale's development would result in an aircraft that better fit new and future requirements. Discussion of the requirements for the F3 standard were finalized in late 2003, and Dassault received a contract for its development in February 2004. In December of that year, an order was placed for delivery of 59 F3-standard Rafales, bringing the total number of aircraft to 120 (13 F1s and 48 F2s, plus 59 F3s). This was a major reduction from the previously planned procurement of 234 fighters for the Air Force alone. According to previous plans, many more F1- and F2-standard aircraft were to have been produced before switching to the F3. Now the numbers of the earlier versions have been reduced, and production is to be shifted to later-standard aircraft (F3 and F4). Total requirements of the French Navy call for 60 aircraft (all single-seat Rafale Ms), and the French Air Force ultimately is to procure 95 Rafale C single-seat and 140 Rafale B two-seat fighters.
The F3 standard aircraft is to receive a modernized radar, but still with the passively scanned antenna. It will include a range of new modes, such as synthetic aperture radar (SAR), enhancing ground attack capabilities. Again according to unofficial information, the improved radar can perform various modes simultaneously, for example air-to-ground and air-search modes at the same time.
The F3-standard aircraft will have full anti-ship capabilities. This means that the RBE2 radar and OSF will have naval-target-detection and -tracking capabilities. The aircraft will also carry MBDA Exocet Block 3 missiles and possibly newly developed anti-ship missiles in the future.
As of the F3 standard, the Rafale will gain a reconnaissance capability, allowing the Mirage F1CRs to be phased out. The Rafale F3 is to carry the newly developed Recce NG pod from Thales Land and Joint Systems (see below).
F3-standard aircraft will also be equipped with a helmet-mounted cueing system. For a long time, the Thales Topisght-E system was mentioned in the context of the Rafale, but recently Sagem Gerfaut is listed as the future provider of Rafale's helmet-mounted cuing system, according to Dassault information. Both systems are very light and have some helmet-mounted display capability. For the F4 standard, development will probably aim for a full helmet-mounted display and elimination of the HUD.
Changes in French Air Force doctrine have caused the service to emphasize its procurement of two-seat Rafale B aircraft at the expense of single-seat Rafale C aircraft (shown here). French Air Force representatives maintain that the experience from recent conflicts has shown that, in dense air-defense environments, the workload is too great for a single pilot – a conclusion that has been reached by many air forces. Intriguingly, the French Navy abandoned its plans to procure a two-seat version of the Rafale.
The F4 standard has not yet been defined. It is expected that the version will be equipped with new Snecma M88-3 engines, with 15-20% more thrust to cope with the greater weight of new avionics and weapons. As for new armaments, Meteor and IRIS-T air-to-air missiles are mentioned, although a decision regarding their integration on the Rafale has not yet been made. The F4 standard will also probably include an AESA-type radar. The F4 version is to be operational after 2010, and most decisions have been deliberately prolonged to enable better adaptation of requirements to future threats.
As has been suggested above, the development of the aircraft platform is not the only way the French are planning to expand and improve the mission capabilities of the "Rafale package." A host of sensor and weapon systems and mission-specific applications will be added to the aircraft over time. Some of the more important of these parallel development efforts are outlined below.
Damocles Targeting Pod
The Damocles navigation and targeting pod was developed by Thomson-CSF Optronique (now Thales). The company's experience in this area goes back to the 1970s with the development of the first-generation ATLIS TV/laser-targeting pod, followed by the second-generation CLDP 8-12µ system in the early 1990s. Development of the Damocles pod started in the mid 1990s and was partially financed by the United Arab Emirates (UAE), which had ordered the system for its Mirage 2000-9s. The Damocles pod has been introduced into French Navy service and is operational on carrier-based Super Etendard aircraft.
The Damocles pod, in its baseline configuration, has a third-generation thermal-imagery camera, working in the waveband of 3-5 µm, and a navigational forward-looking IR (FLIR) sensor mounted in the pylon. The navigational FLIR sensor has a 24x18-degrees field of view. The main sensor is used for targeting purposes, with selectable fields of view: wide (4x3º), intermediate, and narrow (1x0.75º). It is fully stabilized, enabling an observation range of up to 40-50 km. Along with the camera, the Damocles pod is also equipped with two laser sets working in the 1.5- and 1.06-µm wavebands, used for range finding, target designation, and laser spot tracking. The lasers' ranges enables them to be used from outside the firing envelope of many air-defense systems. The Damocles camera and lasers can be cued to the target by other aircraft systems, including indirectly by the RBE2 radar. The pod has also an automatic track mode. The laser-designation system of the Damocles pod is compatible with Paveway II and III, Alenia/MBDA PGM-500 and PGM-2000 HAKIM, and Elbit Lizard guided bombs.
Optronique Secteur Frontal (OSF)
Thales also developed a very advanced built-in electro-optical (EO) targeting system for the Rafale, called Optronique Secteur Frontal (OSF; Front Sector Optronic). The system is mounted in front of the cockpit and consists of two optical modules. The right-side module has a long-wave (8-12 µm) infrared camera used for target search and track. The range of the camera is believed to be up to 90 km in ideal conditions. The left-side module carries a CCD TV camera for daytime target identification. The system also includes a laser rangefinder for use against air targets.
The OSF system does not replace the Damocles pod. Indeed, the OSF system is primarily an air-to-air search, track, identification, and localization sensor, with a limited air-to-ground localization and identification function. The OSF system is to be introduced from the F2 standard onward. In F2.1, it will be air-to-air capable, and in F2.2 it will also gain an air-to-ground capability. From the F3 standard, the OSF system is also to be also adapted for anti-ship missions. A future enhancement has been proposed to the French Air Force and French Navy with a night target-identification function based on a mid-wave IR sensor that would replace the CCD TV camera.
Recce NG
The Thales Recce NG is intended to be not just a reconnaissance pod. It will be a complete reconnaissance system. The pod is the airborne element of the system. The ground elements consist of a mission-planning system and a station for receiving, processing, and disseminating intelligence data in real time.
The Recce NG system offers the capability to perform both high- and medium-altitude strategic reconnaissance and low-altitude tactical reconnaissance during the same mission. The system has three digital optronic sensors: two bi-spectral sensors for long-range reconnaissance (IR and visible) and a high-speed tactical IR line scanner for low-altitude reconnaissance. The bi-spectral sensors offer several fields of view – narrow field for medium-range reconnaissance and very narrow field for long-range, stand-off reconnaissance. The optics of the visible and IR cameras are mounted on a flexible bearing, enabling the systems to be directed vertically and at oblique angles in any direction from horizon to horizon, and with significant agility in azimuth.
The French Navy's relative lack of mid-air refuelling assets may partially explain its reluctance to pay a range penalty in order to accommodate a second crew member in its Rafales. Here, a Rafale M gets a drink from a Super Etendard "tanker."
The Recce NG pod also includes a Recce Management System (RMS) that incorporates advanced operational functions for itinerary surveillance (line search), multiple-point image gathering, ad-hoc stereoscopic data acquisition (pinpoint tracking), real-time datalink management, and digital recording. The pod is equipped with two antennas to transmit high-speed image data in the optical range and another antenna for acquiring and tracking the pod from the ground without a pre-defined air meeting point. The ground element is fully mobile and includes a mission-planning system. Imagery acquisition can be pre-planned or reprogrammed in flight. The ground segment includes a transportable ground terminal and antenna linked to the imagery-acquisition system onboard the pod. Prototype Recce NG pods are now flying, and the system is expected to be operational on the Rafale after 2008.
AASM: the European JDAM
Among the new weapons that are to be integrated beginning with the Rafale F2 standard, one of the most interesting is the AASM, developed by Sagem. This is a conversion kit for 500-lb.-class bombs, such as the Mk82 general-purpose, BLU-111 cluster, and CBEMS/Bang penetration bombs. The guidance section includes an INS and GPS receiver enabling 10-meter accuracy in any weather. The whole modernization kit is extremely cheap , which enables air forces to use this type of weapon en mass to achieve high-destructive effects in a very short time. The bombs are also equipped with folded wings, which enable a glide range of 15 km when dropped from low altitude or 50 km when dropped from medium to high altitudes. Another interesting feature is that the guidance processor enables the pilot or weapons officer to select the angle at which the bomb impacts the target.
Additionally, for contingency-type operations, the guidance section can include not only the INS/GPS for aiming at a pre-selected point, but also an imaging-IR (IIR) seeker. Use of the IIR seeker restricts attacks to a single target per "drop," while INS/GPS mode only enables every bomb to be aimed at a different target and dropped simultaneously. The Rafale can carry up to six AASM bombs on two triple racks under the wings.
ASMP-A Missiles: Nukes for the Rafale
The F3 standard will be nuclear capable, and Rafale aircraft in the both Navy and Air Force services will be armed with new ASMP-A missiles. The ASMP-A [Air-Sol Moyenne Portee Ameliore; air-to-ground, medium range, improved] missile is to replace the existing ASMP missiles that have been used since 1988 on the French Air Force's Mirage 2000N and the French Navy's Super Etendard strike aircraft . The ASMP missile and the French concept of "less-than-strategic" nuclear strikes were developed during the Cold War with a major European war in mind. Defense requirements and policy have changed dramatically since then, however. One of the most serious threats to any Western country's national security is proliferation of weapons and ballistic-missile technologies that would enable "rogue" states to launch a nuclear attack or threaten to do so. To deal with such situations, as well as other contingencies involving conflict with established powers, the French MoD decided to increase its nuclear deterrence capabilities. Now Mirage 2000N K3 or Rafale aircraft, with the assistance of aerial refueling and/or forward airbases, would be able to attack almost any location in the world. With the missile's range of over 500 km, in many cases, the attacking aircraft would be able to launch a strike without penetrating the enemy's territory.
A host of sensor and weapon systems and mission-specific applications will be added to the Rafale over time. This Rafale B carries the Damocles navigation and targeting pod. The Damocles pod, in its baseline configuration, has a third-generation thermal-imagery camera, a navigational forward-looking infrared (FLIR) sensor mounted in the pylon, and a pair of lasers for range finding, target designation, and laser spot tracking.
The range increase to about 500-600 km is not the only improvement in the new missile. The additional range is to be achieved without substantially increasing the missile's dimensions and weight. Ultimately, after the future withdrawal of the Mirage 2000N, the ASMP-A missile would be carried by the Rafale, from the both land bases and the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle, so missile is to fit the Rafale's existing under-fuselage weapon station. To achieve this task, MBDA used a very modern liquid-fuel ramjet engine called the Vesta [Vecteur a Stratoreacteur], developed by Aerospatiale Missiles and Celerg. It was originally designed for the ANF anti-ship missile, development of which has been cancelled. In addition to its fuel efficiency and high thrust-to-weight ratio, the engine is also equipped with a thrust-vectoring system, enabling the missile to perform sharp maneuvers. The ASMP-A is to be also fitted with lightweight nuclear warhead called the TNA [Tete Nucleaire Aero-Portee].
Missile guidance is to be developed by Thales Avionics (Paris, France) and will be of an INS/GPS type. The inertial system will be based on precise laser ring gyros, and the GPS-guidance system will be provided with anti-jamming devices. The guidance computer will enable the missile to use various routes and flight profiles to optimize air-defense-penetration capabilities. The missile will be able to operate over a very broad flight envelope at high-supersonic speed. Also to increase air-defense-penetration capabilities, the missile is to be built using stealth principles.
Reportedly, 47 nuclear-tripped ASMP-A missiles are to be produced and introduced to service on Mirage 2000Ns in 2007 and on Rafales a year later. Presently, three Mirage 2000N K2 squadrons can carry ASMP missiles. Two of these (EC 01.004 Dauphine and EC 02.004 La Fayette) are based at Luxeuil, with the third (EC 03.004 Limousin) at Istres. The French Navy's 12F Squadron of Rafale Ms will probably receive the ASMP-A missile as well.
Rafale in Service
In December 2001, the first Rafale Ms were delivered to Navy Squadron 12F at Landivisiau, which had turned in its F-8E(FN) Crusaders in late 1999. In the spring of 2002, 12F Squadron became operational, and with seven Rafales, it deployed aboard the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle, which went to the Indian Ocean in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. In June 2002, mock fights were conducted between Rafales and US Navy F-14s and F/A-18s, with results that reportedly were quite surprising to the US Navy aviators. According to a French source, the Rafale was hardly detectable by radars on both types of US aircraft and was always able to conduct the first attack with the use of medium-range missiles. The Rafale was also very agile and maneuverable in a dog-fight engagements. Also during the operation, Rafales executed touch-and-go landings of the US Navy aircraft carrier USS John C. Stennis in a demonstration of NATO interoperability.
In March 2004, Charles de Gaulle again set off to the Indian Ocean, where her embarked Rafale squadron took part in the Northwind 2004 joint exercises with French Mirage 2000s based at Djibouti and with Mirage 2000-9s of the UAE. Later, the aircraft took part in the Varuna exercise conducted with the Indian Navy, and Rafales were matched against Indian Sea Harrier FRS.51s. Another exercise, Red Shark, conducted with Saudi Arabia, enabled Rafales to conduct practice engagements against Saudi Tornado F3 aircraft. By the summer of 2004, Rafale Ms had accumulated 4,400 flying hours over approximately 2,000 sorties and had live-fired 20 Magic-2 and 10 MICA missiles.
The next French Navy squadron to receive Rafales is to be 11F in 2006 and 17F in 2007-2008. The squadrons will receive F2- and F3-standard aircraft, respectively. It is planned, however, that all Navy squadrons will be gradually be brought up to the F3 standard. The 11F and 17F Squadrons both presently fly Super Etendard aircraft, with air-to-surface as their primary mission. Interestingly, in 2004 it was decided not to proceed with the two-seat Rafale N for the Navy, and the first flight of the model, planned for 2005, has been cancelled. All French Navy aircraft will now be delivered as single-seat Rafale Ms.
One can speculate as to why the French Navy eliminated the two-seat Rafale N, particularly since the French Air Force has increased the proportion of two-seat models it plans to order, with (ultimately) 140 two-seat and 95 single-seat aircraft. The official statements of both services are different. Air Force representatives maintain that the experience from recent conflicts has shown that, in dense air-defense environments, the workload is too great for a single pilot. That conclusion has been reached by many air forces. Meanwhile, the French Navy officially announced that development of the two-seat Rafale N was cancelled as unnecessary, primarily due to high costs.
However, behind these official and somewhat contradictory statements are some other factors. One of them is that Rafale N was to be heavier by about 1,000 kg than the land-based single-seater, thus reducing range and combat radius. Moreover, the two-seaters have slightly less internal fuel capacity. Operating from land bases, the French Air Force is usually able to bring tankers to the mission area for in-flight refueling, so the two-seater's decrreased range and combat radius penalty are not as important as for the Navy. Another issue is that after 2015, considerably more of the tasks assigned to manned tactical aircraft will be undertaken by unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVS), such as the Neuron being developed by Dassault.
According to the current French assessment, UCAVs will not replace manned aircraft in total but will operate with them in mixed formations (see "The Robot's Got Your Back"). The man-in-the-loop factor is very important in dynamically changing tactical situations, in which unexpected circumstances emerge. Greater integration on UCAVs into the overall framework of modern combat aviation is being enabled by the network-centric warfare concept. In the future, Rafales equipped with state-of-the-art sensors and data-exchange capabilities will form the core of sensor-to-shooter networks over enemy territory, supported by more dedicated sensors (AWACs, Airborne Ground Sensors, and signals-intelligence platforms) operating over friendly territory. So France's Rafales will also perform a leading role for the UCAVs in integrated strike packages, essentially serving as "UCAV leaders." In such a case, the two-seat version is essential for the role. From the Navy perspective, carrier strike groups do not have the capacity to support large numbers of UCAVs. Moreover, it must be assumed that losses among UCAVs will be considerably higher than among manned aircraft, and replenishing the battlegroup's stock of such systems would be difficult. Therefore, French naval aviation will continue to rely on manned platforms to execute its tactical and strategic missions, so the Navy's requirement for two-seat Rafales is not as pronounced as in the Air Force.
One could ask why such a capable and technically successful aircraft as the Rafale has had such a difficult time finding export orders. Is the Rafale what the Russians call a "golden fish," an expensive but useless piece of military equipment? The Rafale certainly is not cheap. But it is the most impressive aircraft to come out of Europe in two decades. Time will tell whether the Rafale will find a home among the great combat aircraft of the world.
The first operational French Air Force unit will be the 1/7 Provence at Saint-Dizier (Base Aérienne 113) beginning in 2006, replacing the Jaguar ground-attack aircraft the squadron currently operates. Another Jaguar squadron at the base will be the next to convert. All Jaguars will eventually be retired from the French Air Force and replaced by Rafales. The next aircraft to be replaced by Rafales are Mirage F1CT fighter-bombers and Mirage F1CR reconnaissance aircraft, between 2008 and 2015. The Mirage 2000 will remain in service alongside Rafales, at least until 2015. It is planned that, in 2008, the French Air Force will have 40 Rafales, 30 Mirage 2000-5, 60 Mirage 2000C/D (reduced from 80 in 2005), 60 Mirage 2000D, 40 Mirage 2000N (reduced from 60 in 2005), 40 Mirage F1CR, and 40 Mirage F1CT (reduced from 60 in 2005) aircraft. These are currently authorized strengths, and there is likely to be some slight variance when the time comes. In 2015, the number of Rafales deployed by the French Air Force is scheduled to reach 140.
Rafale: Right Now?
The Rafale is a very capable aircraft. It can deliver of up to three to four tons of ordnance within a tactical radius of 1,050-1,500 km. With a full internal and external fuel load, it can conduct over three-and-a-half hours of combat air patrol 800 km away from its base, armed with eight air-to-air missiles. The range on internal fuel is 2,100 km, but with three large drop tanks, it climbs 5,500 km (according to unofficial figures). Range can be further enhanced by the use of conformal tanks on the upper part of the connection between the fuselage and wings. The air-to-air and air-to-ground weapons set is very impressive, enabling all-weather, day and night attack capabilities, including stand-off attacks with conventional and nuclear payloads. When we add some stealth capabilities – less than F/A-22 Raptor and F-35 Joint Strike Fighter, but close – then anyone must agree that the Rafale is a great technical success.
So why has no export customer been found? The answer is complex. First, one has to consider that the Rafale is an aircraft in a class between the F-16 and F-15 – or maybe more appropriately – in a class between the F-35 and F/A-22. Regardless, it is not a cheap plane. It is simply not an option for poorer countries. At the same time, Dassault is offering its successful Mirage 2000 fighter, which benefited from the down-transfer of some technology from the Rafale. It seems that Dassault does not want the Rafale to spoil Mirage 2000 sales, and it also does not really want to sell the system before it is fully mature. From a marketing standpoint, it is possible that some customers might buy the Rafale in the future to replace Mirage 2000s purchased today, so why skip ahead? Moreover, not all countries may be offered Rafale, since the aircraft incorporates many critical technologies that are important for France's security. (The reader might have noticed these security concerns in the amount of "not officially confirmed" data throughout this article.)
Among the current potential foreign customers of the Rafale are Thailand and Singapore, especially the latter. The Rafale was not selected in the tender for the Republic of (South) Korea Air Force, losing to the Boeing (St. Louis, MO) F-15K, a version of the F-15E (see "EW Suite Flies on New Korean F-15K"). According to Dassault (and most likely it is true), the Rafale was the clear performance winner in Korea, but political pressure from US sources influenced Korea's choice.
The delay in procurement of the aircraft by France is caused primarily by the rapid development of the concept of network-centric warfare and its implementation across the armed services. As network-centric forces materialize, the allocation of missions and roles between manned and unmanned aircraft will change considerably, so manned aircraft systems will have to be reconfigured accordingly. Thus, it is better to wait and adjust aircraft development to emerging requirements than to take the wrong way prematurely.
Rafale Order Status
Rafale M Rafale C Rafale B
Placed Orders: (1 seat) (1 seat) (2 seat)
Standard
10 1 2
F1 (1994)
F2 (1999) 16 7 25
F3 (2004) 12 36 11
Total Orders 38 44 38
Expected Orders: 22 51 102
Total Aircraft Planned: 60 95 140
Basic Technical Data
Wingspan: 10.8 m
Wing Area: 45.7 sq. m
Length: 10.3 m
Height: 5.3 m
Empty Weight: 9,040 kg (Rafale C)/9,600 kg (Rafale B)/9,900 kg (Rafale M)
Maximum Weight: 24,500 kg
Internal Fuel: 4,500 kg
External Fuel: 7,500 kg
Maximum External Load: 9,500 kg
External Stores Stations: 14 (Air Force)/ 13 (Navy)
Heavy Charges & Fuel ("wet")
Stations: 5
G Limits: +9 G/-3.2 G
Maximum Speed: Mach 2*
Maximum Speed at Sea Level: Mach 1.14*
Supercruise: Mach 1.2*
Approach Speed: 120 knots
Take-Off Distance: 400 m
Landing Distance: 450 m
Roll Rate: 270º/sec.*
Max Instant Turn Rate: 32º/sec.*
Max Climb Rate: 305 m/sec.*
Combat Radius: 1,100-1,500 km with full load; 1,850 km with conformal tanks
*Figures from unofficial sources, not confirmed by Dassault.
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