FULL TABLES here
http://www.aabri.com/manuscripts/08104.pdf
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
There may be several different explanations for the general dissatisfaction and negative
perceptions of the general working environment reported by American Indians and Alaskan
Natives in the MEOCS data. One possible explanation is "post traumatic stress disorder"
(PTSD). In their review of the literature on PTSD, Lev-Wiesel and Amir (2001) cite several
studies suggesting the disorder may be transmitted from those who actually experienced trauma
to those with whom they are in a close or intimate relationship such as spouses, children or
caregivers, i.e., secondary traumatic stress disorder (STSD). They cite studies demonstrating the
STSD is characterized by symptoms nearly identical to those suffering from PTSD. The only
difference being that for STSD exposure to the traumatic event(s) is indirect while for the PSTD
victims the traumatic event is directly experienced.
The symptoms of STSD include general distress, psychoticism, phobic anxiety,
avoidance behavior, and depression among other things. The study conducted by Lev-Wiesel
and Amir (2001) concluded that PTSD experienced by a survivor of the holocaust contributed
significantly to the STSD symptoms of their spouses who had not directly experienced the
holocaust.
Kellermann (2001) discusses how PTSD may be transmitted to the children of holocaust
victims. Four models of transmission are discussed which suggest that PTSD in parents
produces in their children emotional problems, difficulties in coping with stress, impaired selfesteem
with persistent identity problems and anxiety, among other things (Kellermann ,2001:
259-260).
The general population is reported to experience PTSD at the rate of 8%, research
suggests that 22% American Indians display symptoms of PTSD (Yellow Horse Brave Heart,
2003). Many researchers have argued that the Native American history of trauma and
unresolved grief plays a significant role in the current social pathology of the Native American
today (Yellow Horse Brave Heart and DeBruyn, 1998; Yellow Horse Brave Heart, 2003; Walter,
et al., 2002; and, Tann, et al., 2007). They have labeled this phenomenon as "historical
unresolved grief" and link it to high rates of suicide, homicide, domestic violence, child abuse,
alcoholism and other social problems among this effected group. These authors cite much
literature drawing the parallels between the Jewish Holocaust in Europe with that of the
American Indian (Yellow Horse Brave Heart and DeBruyn, 1998: 62-64).
This proposition seems to hold credence when you consider the history of the Jews after
WWII and the Black African American who historically suffered similar trauma under slavery.
For the holocaust victims there was a final victory—Germany lost the war. There were trials,
people were punished for their roles in the holocaust and Israel was created. Each of these
events could ease the process of healing from such trauma.
For the Black American there was a Civil War and slavery was abolished. There were
civil rights protests and riots in the 50's, 60's, and 70's resulting in victories for equal rights and
opportunities for minorities in the United States. These too would serve to help heal the wounds
of trauma experienced by generations of Black Americans. But, for the American Indians there
has been little or none of this and thus, the healing has not taken place.
To conclude, there is general agreement in the literature with regard to the existence of
this problem for the Native American population. As to a major contributor to the problem,
Journal of Academic and Business Ethics, Volume 2
A Comparative Analysis, Page 7
historical trauma has gained general acceptance as a primary causal factor within the Native
American populations (Whitbeck, et al., 2004). But, in terms of proffering a solution, the
literature presents no quick or easy remedy. Yellow Horse Brave Heart and DeBruyn (1998: 75)
suggest that "community healing along with individual and family healing are necessary to
thoroughly address historical unresolved grief and its present manifestations"¦without such
commitment to healing the past, we will not be able to address the resultant trauma and prevent
the continuation of such atrocities in the present". Walters, et al. (2002) posit a similar solution,
i.e., one which focuses on family, community, spirituality and traditional Native American
healing practices.
FUTURE RESEARCH
This paper is clearly a preliminary examination of an important issue. These authors plan
to expand their review of the literature on the issues of traumatic stress. The data base will be
examined more closely to determine if there are specific issues/events in the American
Indian/Alaska Native experience within the Department of Defense which may contribute to or
create the problems identified here. The effectiveness of potential solutions needs to be
examined. Finally, the authors will investigate to what extent there may be gender differences in
the American Indian/Alaskan Native organizational commitment, job satisfaction and
organization equal opportunity climate.
